FiftyOne Brain¶

The FiftyOne Brain provides powerful machine learning techniques that are designed to transform how you curate your data from an art into a measurable science.

Note

The FiftyOne Brain is a separate Python package that is bundled with FiftyOne. Although it is closed-source, it is licensed as freeware, and you have permission to use it for commercial or non-commercial purposes. See the license for more details.

The FiftyOne Brain methods are useful across the stages of the machine learning workflow:

Visualizing embeddings: Tired of combing through individual images/videos and staring at aggregate performance metrics trying to figure out how to improve the performance of your model? Using FiftyOne to visualize your dataset in a low-dimensional embedding space can reveal patterns and clusters in your data that can help you answer many important questions about your data, from identifying the most critical failure modes of your model, to isolating examples of critical scenarios, to recommending new samples to add to your training dataset, and more!
Similarity: When constructing a dataset or training a model, have you ever wanted to find similar examples to an image or object of interest? For example, you may have found a failure case of your model and now want to search for similar scenarios in your evaluation set to diagnose the issue, or you want to mine your data lake to augment your training set to fix the issue. Use the FiftyOne Brain to index your data by similarity and you can easily query and sort your datasets to find similar examples, both programmatically and via point-and-click in the App.
Uniqueness: During the training loop for a model, the best results will be seen when training on unique data. The FiftyOne Brain provides a uniqueness measure for images that compare the content of every image in a dataset with all other images. Uniqueness operates on raw images and does not require any prior annotation on the data. It is hence very useful in the early stages of the machine learning workflow when you are likely asking “What data should I select to annotate?”
Mistakenness: Annotations mistakes create an artificial ceiling on the performance of your models. However, finding these mistakes by hand is at least as arduous as the original annotation was, especially in cases of larger datasets. The FiftyOne Brain provides a quantitative mistakenness measure to identify possible label mistakes. Mistakenness operates on labeled images and requires the logit-output of your model predictions in order to provide maximum efficacy. It also works on detection datasets to find missed objects, incorrect annotations, and localization issues.
Hardness: While a model is training, it will learn to understand attributes of certain samples faster than others. The FiftyOne Brain provides a hardness measure that calculates how easy or difficult it is for your model to understand any given sample. Mining hard samples is a tried and true measure of mature machine learning processes. Use your current model instance to compute predictions on unlabeled samples to determine which are the most valuable to have annotated and fed back into the system as training samples, for example.

Note

Check out the tutorials page for detailed examples demonstrating the use of each Brain capability.

Visualizing embeddings¶

The FiftyOne Brain provides a powerful compute_visualization() method that you can use to generate low-dimensional representations of the samples and/or individual objects in your datasets.

These representations can be visualized natively in the App’s Embeddings panel, where you can interactively select points of interest and view the corresponding samples/labels of interest in the Samples panel, and vice versa.

There are two primary components to an embedding visualization: the method used to generate the embeddings, and the dimensionality reduction method used to compute a low-dimensional representation of the embeddings.

Embedding methods¶

The embeddings and model parameters of compute_visualization() support a variety of ways to generate embeddings for your data:

Provide nothing, in which case a default general purpose model is used to embed your data
Provide a Model instance or the name of any model from the Model Zoo that supports embeddings
Provide your own precomputed embeddings in array form
Provide the name of a VectorField or ArrayField of your dataset in which precomputed embeddings are stored

Dimensionality reduction methods¶

The method parameter of compute_visualization() allows you to specify the dimensionality reduction method to use. The supported methods are:

umap (default): Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP)
t-sne: t-distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE)
pca: Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

Note

When you use the default UMAP method for the first time, you will be prompted to install the umap-learn package.

Applications¶

How can embedding-based visualization of your data be used in practice? These visualizations often uncover hidden structure in you data that has important semantic meaning depending on the data you use to color/size the points.

Here are a few of the many possible applications:

Identifying anomalous and/or visually similar examples
Uncovering patterns in incorrect/spurious predictions
Finding examples of target scenarios in your data lake
Mining hard examples for your evaluation pipeline
Recommending samples from your data lake for classes that need additional training data
Unsupervised pre-annotation of training data

The best part about embedding visualizations is that you will likely discover more applications specific to your use case when you try it out on your data!

Note

Check out the image embeddings tutorial to see example uses of the Brain’s embeddings-powered visualization methods to uncover hidden structure in datasets.

Image embeddings example¶

The following example gives a taste of the powers of visual embeddings in FiftyOne using the BDD100K dataset from the dataset zoo, embeddings generated by a mobilenet model from the model zoo, and the default UMAP dimensionality reduction method.

In this setup, the scatterpoints in the Embeddings panel correspond to images in the validation split colored by the time of day labels provided by the BDD100K dataset. When points are lasso-ed in the plot, the corresponding samples are automatically selected in the Samples panel:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

# The BDD dataset must be manually downloaded. See the zoo docs for details
source_dir = "/path/to/dir-with-bdd100k-files"

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset(
    "bdd100k", split="validation", source_dir=source_dir,
)

# Compute embeddings
# You will likely want to run this on a machine with GPU, as this requires
# running inference on 10,000 images
model = foz.load_zoo_model("mobilenet-v2-imagenet-torch")
embeddings = dataset.compute_embeddings(model)

# Compute visualization
results = fob.compute_visualization(
    dataset, embeddings=embeddings, seed=51, brain_key="img_viz"
)

session = fo.launch_app(dataset)

Note

Did you know? You can programmatically configure your Spaces layout!

The GIF shows the variety of insights that are revealed by running this simple protocol:

The first cluster of points selected reveals a set of samples whose field of view is corrupted by hardware gradients at the top and bottom of the image
The second cluster of points reveals a set of images in rainy conditions with water droplets on the windshield
Hiding the primary cluster of daytime points and selecting the remaining night points reveals that the night points have incorrect labels

Object embeddings example¶

The following example demonstrates how embeddings can be used to visualize the ground truth objects in the quickstart dataset using the compute_visualization() method’s default embeddings model and dimensionality method.

In this setup, we generate a visualization for all ground truth objects, but then we create a view that restricts the visualization to only objects in a subset of the classes. The scatterpoints in the Embeddings panel correspond to objects, colored by their label. When points are lasso-ed in the plot, the corresponding object patches are automatically selected in the Samples panel:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz
from fiftyone import ViewField as F

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

# Generate visualization for `ground_truth` objects
results = fob.compute_visualization(
    dataset, patches_field="ground_truth", brain_key="gt_viz"
)

# Restrict to the 10 most common classes
counts = dataset.count_values("ground_truth.detections.label")
classes = sorted(counts, key=counts.get, reverse=True)[:10]
view = dataset.filter_labels("ground_truth", F("label").is_in(classes))

session = fo.launch_app(view)

Note

Did you know? You can programmatically configure your Spaces layout!

As you can see, the coloring of the scatterpoints allows you to discover natural clusters of objects, such as visually similar carrots or kites in the air.

Similarity¶

The FiftyOne Brain provides a compute_similarity() method that you can use to index the images or object patches in a dataset by similarity.

Once you’ve indexed a dataset by similarity, you can use the sort_by_similarity() view stage to programmatically sort your dataset by similarity to any image(s) or object patch(es) of your choice in your dataset. In addition, the App provides a convenient point-and-click interface for sorting by similarity with respect to an index on a dataset.

Note

Did you know? You can search by natural language using similarity indexes!

Embedding methods¶

Like embeddings visualization, similarity leverages deep embeddings to generate an index for a dataset.

The embeddings and model parameters of compute_similarity() support a variety of ways to generate embeddings for your data:

Provide nothing, in which case a default general purpose model is used to index your data
Provide a Model instance or the name of any model from the Model Zoo that supports embeddings
Provide your own precomputed embeddings in array form
Provide the name of a VectorField or ArrayField of your dataset in which precomputed embeddings are stored

Similarity backends¶

By default, all similarity indexes are served using a builtin scikit-learn backend, but you can pass the optional backend parameter to compute_similarity() to switch to another supported backend:

sklearn (default): a scikit-learn backend
qdrant: a Qdrant backend
pinecone: a Pinecone backend
milvus: a Milvus backend
lancedb: a LanceDB backend

Note

Refer to this section for more information about creating, managing and deleting similarity indexes.

Image similarity¶

This section demonstrates the basic workflow of:

Indexing an image dataset by similarity
Using the App’s image similarity UI to query by visual similarity
Using the SDK’s sort_by_similarity() view stage to programmatically query the index

To index a dataset by image similarity, pass the Dataset or DatasetView of interest to compute_similarity() along with a name for the index via the brain_key argument.

Next load the dataset in the App and select some image(s). Whenever there is an active selection in the App, a similarity icon will appear above the grid, enabling you to sort by similarity to your current selection.

You can use the advanced settings menu to choose between multiple brain keys and optionally specify a maximum number of matches to return (k) and whether to query by greatest or least similarity (if supported).

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

# Index images by similarity
fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",
    brain_key="img_sim",
)

session = fo.launch_app(dataset)

Note

In the example above, we specify a zoo model with which to generate embeddings, but you can also provide precomputed embeddings.

Alternatively, you can use the sort_by_similarity() view stage to programmatically construct a view that contains the sorted results:

# Choose a random image from the dataset
query_id = dataset.take(1).first().id

# Programmatically construct a view containing the 15 most similar images
view = dataset.sort_by_similarity(query_id, k=15, brain_key="img_sim")

session.view = view

Note

Performing a similarity search on a DatasetView will only return results from the view; if the view contains samples that were not included in the index, they will never be included in the result.

This means that you can index an entire Dataset once and then perform searches on subsets of the dataset by constructing views that contain the images of interest.

Note

For large datasets, you may notice longer load times the first time you use a similarity index in a session. Subsequent similarity searches will use cached results and will be faster!

Object similarity¶

This section demonstrates the basic workflow of:

Indexing a dataset of objects by similarity
Using the App’s object similarity UI to query by visual similarity
Using the SDK’s sort_by_similarity() view stage to programmatically query the index

You can index any objects stored on datasets in Detection, Detections, Polyline, or Polylines format. See this section for more information about adding labels to your datasets.

To index by object patches, simply pass the Dataset or DatasetView of interest to compute_similarity() along with the name of the patches field and a name for the index via the brain_key argument.

Next load the dataset in the App and switch to object patches view by clicking the patches icon above the grid and choosing the label field of interest from the dropdown.

Now whenever you have selected one or more patches in the App, a similarity icon will appear above the grid, enabling you to sort by similarity to your current selection.

You can use the advanced settings menu to choose between multiple brain keys and optionally specify a maximum number of matches to return (k) and whether to query by greatest or least similarity (if supported).

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

# Index ground truth objects by similarity
fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    patches_field="ground_truth",
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",
    brain_key="gt_sim",
)

session = fo.launch_app(dataset)

Note

In the example above, we specify a zoo model with which to generate embeddings, but you can also provide precomputed embeddings.

Alternatively, you can directly use the sort_by_similarity() view stage to programmatically construct a view that contains the sorted results:

# Convert to patches view
patches = dataset.to_patches("ground_truth")

# Choose a random patch object from the dataset
query_id = patches.take(1).first().id

# Programmatically construct a view containing the 15 most similar objects
view = patches.sort_by_similarity(query_id, k=15, brain_key="gt_sim")

session.view = view

Note

Performing a similarity search on a DatasetView will only return results from the view; if the view contains objects that were not included in the index, they will never be included in the result.

This means that you can index an entire Dataset once and then perform searches on subsets of the dataset by constructing views that contain the objects of interest.

Note

For large datasets, you may notice longer load times the first time you use a similarity index in a session. Subsequent similarity searches will use cached results and will be faster!

Text similarity¶

When you create a similarity index powered by the CLIP model, you can also search by arbitrary natural language queries natively in the App!

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

# Index images by similarity
image_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",
    brain_key="img_sim",
)

session = fo.launch_app(dataset)

You can verify that an index supports text queries by checking that it supports_prompts:

# If you have already loaded the index
print(image_index.config.supports_prompts)  # True

# Without loading the index
info = dataset.get_brain_info("img_sim")
print(info.config.supports_prompts)  # True

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

# Index ground truth objects by similarity
object_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    patches_field="ground_truth",
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",
    brain_key="gt_sim",
)

session = fo.launch_app(dataset)

You can verify that an index supports text queries by checking that it supports_prompts:

# If you have already loaded the index
print(object_index.config.supports_prompts)  # True

# Without loading the index
info = dataset.get_brain_info("gt_sim")
print(info.config.supports_prompts)  # True

You can also perform text queries via the SDK by passing a prompt directly to sort_by_similarity() along with the brain_key of a compatible similarity index:

# Perform a text query
query = "kites high in the air"
view = dataset.sort_by_similarity(query, k=15, brain_key="img_sim")

session.view = view

# Convert to patches view
patches = dataset.to_patches("ground_truth")

# Perform a text query
query = "cute puppies"
view = patches.sort_by_similarity(query, k=15, brain_key="gt_sim")

session.view = view

Note

In general, any custom model that is made available via the model zoo interface that implements the PromptMixin interface can support text similarity queries!

Duplicate detection¶

For some similarity backends — including the default sklearn backend — the SimilarityIndex object returned by compute_similarity() also provides powerful find_unique() and find_duplicates() methods that you can use to find both maximally unique and near-duplicate subsets of your datasets or their object patches. See this section for example uses.

Similarity API¶

This section describes how to setup, create, and manage similarity indexes in detail.

Changing your similarity backend¶

You can use a specific backend for a particular similarity index by passing the backend parameter to compute_similarity():

index = fob.compute_similarity(..., backend="<backend>", ...)

Alternatively, you can change your default similarity backend for an entire session by setting the FIFTYONE_BRAIN_DEFAULT_SIMILARITY_BACKEND environment variable.

export FIFTYONE_BRAIN_DEFAULT_SIMILARITY_BACKEND=<backend>

Finally, you can permanently change your default similarity backend by updating the default_similarity_backend key of your brain config at ~/.fiftyone/brain_config.json:

{
    "default_similarity_backend": "<backend>",
    "similarity_backends": {
        "<backend>": {...},
        ...
    }
}

Configuring your backend¶

Similarity backends may be configured in a variety of backend-specific ways, which you can see by inspecting the parameters of a backend’s associated SimilarityConfig class.

The relevant classes for the builtin similarity backends are:

sklearn: fiftyone.brain.internal.core.sklearn.SklearnSimilarityConfig
qdrant: fiftyone.brain.internal.core.qdrant.QdrantSimilarityConfig
pinecone: fiftyone.brain.internal.core.pinecone.PineconeSimilarityConfig
milvus: fiftyone.brain.internal.core.milvus.MilvusSimilarityConfig
lancedb: fiftyone.brain.internal.core.lancedb.LanceDBSimilarityConfig

You can configure a similarity backend’s parameters for a specific index by simply passing supported config parameters as keyword arguments each time you call compute_similarity():

index = fob.compute_similarity(
    ...
    backend="qdrant",
    url="http://localhost:6333",
)

Alternatively, you can more permanently configure your backend(s) via your brain config.

Creating an index¶

The compute_similarity() method provides a number of different syntaxes for initializing a similarity index. Let’s see some common patterns on the quickstart dataset:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

Default behavior¶

With no arguments, embeddings will be automatically computed for all images or patches in the dataset using a default model and added to a new index in your default backend:

tmp_index = fob.compute_similarity(dataset, brain_key="tmp")

print(tmp_index.config.method)  # 'sklearn'
print(tmp_index.config.model)  # 'mobilenet-v2-imagenet-torch'
print(tmp_index.total_index_size)  # 200

dataset.delete_brain_run("tmp")

tmp_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    patches_field="ground_truth",   # field containing objects of interest
    brain_key="tmp",
)

print(tmp_index.config.method)  # 'sklearn'
print(tmp_index.config.model)  # 'mobilenet-v2-imagenet-torch'
print(tmp_index.total_index_size)  # 1232

dataset.delete_brain_run("tmp")

Custom model, custom backend, add embeddings later¶

With the syntax below, we’re specifying a similarity backend of our choice, specifying a custom model from the Model Zoo to use to generate embeddings, and using the embeddings=False syntax to create the index without initially adding any embeddings to it:

image_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",  # custom model
    embeddings=False,               # add embeddings later
    backend="sklearn",              # custom backend
    brain_key="img_sim",
)

print(image_index.total_index_size)  # 0

object_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    patches_field="ground_truth",   # field containing objects of interest
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",  # custom model
    embeddings=False,               # add embeddings later
    backend="sklearn",              # custom backend
    brain_key="gt_sim",
)

print(object_index.total_index_size)  # 0

Precomputed embeddings¶

You can pass precomputed image or object embeddings to compute_similarity() via the embeddings argument:

model = foz.load_zoo_model("clip-vit-base32-torch")
embeddings = dataset.compute_embeddings(model)

tmp_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",  # store model's name for future use
    embeddings=embeddings,          # precomputed image embeddings
    brain_key="tmp",
)

print(tmp_index.total_index_size)  # 200

dataset.delete_brain_run("tmp")

model = foz.load_zoo_model("clip-vit-base32-torch")
embeddings = dataset.compute_patch_embeddings(model, "ground_truth")

tmp_index = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset,
    patches_field="ground_truth",   # field containing objects of interest
    model="clip-vit-base32-torch",  # store model's name for future use
    embeddings=embeddings,          # precomputed patch embeddings
    brain_key="tmp",
)

print(tmp_index.total_index_size)  # 1232

dataset.delete_brain_run("tmp")

Adding embeddings to an index¶

You can use add_to_index() to add new embeddings or overwrite existing embeddings in an index at any time:

image_index = dataset.load_brain_results("img_sim")
print(image_index.total_index_size)  # 0

view1 = dataset[:100]
view2 = dataset[100:]

#
# Approach 1: use the index to compute embeddings for `view1`
#

embeddings, sample_ids, _ = image_index.compute_embeddings(view1)
image_index.add_to_index(embeddings, sample_ids)
print(image_index.total_index_size)  # 100

#
# Approach 2: manually compute embeddings for `view2`
#

model = image_index.get_model()  # the index's model
embeddings = view2.compute_embeddings(model)
sample_ids = view2.values("id")
image_index.add_to_index(embeddings, sample_ids)
print(image_index.total_index_size)  # 200

# Must save after edits when using the sklearn backend
image_index.save()

When working with object embeddings, you must provide the sample ID and label ID for each embedding you add to the index:

import numpy as np

object_index = dataset.load_brain_results("gt_sim")
print(object_index.total_index_size)  # 0

view1 = dataset[:100]
view2 = dataset[100:]

#
# Approach 1: use the index to compute embeddings for `view1`
#

embeddings, sample_ids, label_ids = object_index.compute_embeddings(view1)
object_index.add_to_index(embeddings, sample_ids, label_ids=label_ids)
print(object_index.total_index_size)  # 471

#
# Approach 2: manually compute embeddings for `view2`
#

# Manually load the index's model
model = object_index.get_model()

# Compute patch embeddings
_embeddings = view2.compute_patch_embeddings(model, "ground_truth")
_label_ids = dict(zip(*view2.values(["id", "ground_truth.detections.id"])))

# Organize into correct format
embeddings = []
sample_ids = []
label_ids = []
for sample_id, patch_embeddings in _embeddings.items():
    patch_ids = _label_ids[sample_id]
    if not patch_ids:
        continue

    for embedding, label_id in zip(patch_embeddings, patch_ids):
        embeddings.append(embedding)
        sample_ids.append(sample_id)
        label_ids.append(label_id)

object_index.add_to_index(
    np.stack(embeddings),
    np.array(sample_ids),
    label_ids=np.array(label_ids),
)
print(object_index.total_index_size)  # 1232

# Must save after edits when using the sklearn backend
object_index.save()

Note

When using the default sklearn backend, you must manually call save() after adding or removing embeddings from an index in order to save the index to the database.

This is not required when using external vector databases like like Qdrant, Pinecone, Milvus, and LanceDB

Note

Did you know? If you provided the name of a zoo model when creating the similarity index, you can use get_model() to load the model later. Or, you can use compute_embeddings() to conveniently generate embeddings for new samples/objects using the index’s model.

Retrieving embeddings in an index¶

You can use get_embeddings() to retrieve the embeddings for any or all IDs of interest from an existing index:

ids = dataset.take(50).values("id")
embeddings, sample_ids, _ = image_index.get_embeddings(sample_ids=ids)

print(embeddings.shape)  # (50, 512)
print(sample_ids.shape)  # (50,)

When working with object embeddings, you can provide either sample IDs or label IDs for which you want to retrieve embeddings:

from fiftyone import ViewField as F

ids = (
    dataset
    .filter_labels("ground_truth", F("label") == "person")
    .values("ground_truth.detections.id", unwind=True)
)

embeddings, sample_ids, label_ids = object_index.get_embeddings(label_ids=ids)

print(embeddings.shape)  # (378, 512)
print(sample_ids.shape)  # (378,)
print(label_ids.shape)  # (378,)

Removing embeddings from an index¶

You can use remove_from_index() to delete embeddings from an index by their ID:

ids = dataset.take(50).values("id")

image_index.remove_from_index(sample_ids=ids)
print(image_index.total_index_size)  # 150

# Must save after edits when using the sklearn backend
image_index.save()

When working with object embeddings, you can provide either sample IDs or label IDs for which you want to delete embeddings:

from fiftyone import ViewField as F

ids = (
    dataset
    .filter_labels("ground_truth", F("label") == "person")
    .values("ground_truth.detections.id", unwind=True)
)

object_index.remove_from_index(label_ids=ids)
print(object_index.total_index_size)  # 854

# Must save after edits when using the sklearn backend
object_index.save()

Note

When using the default sklearn backend, you must manually call save() after adding or removing embeddings from an index in order to save the index to the database.

This is not required when using external vector databases like like Qdrant, Pinecone, Milvus, and LanceDB

Deleting an index¶

When working with backends like Qdrant, Pinecone, and Milvus that leverage external vector databases, you can call cleanup() to delete the external index/collection:

# First delete the index from the backend (if applicable)
image_index.cleanup()

# Now delete the index from your dataset
dataset.delete_brain_run("img_sim")

# First delete the index from the backend (if applicable)
object_index.cleanup()

# Now delete the index from your dataset
dataset.delete_brain_run("gt_sim")

Note

Calling cleanup() has no effect when working with the default sklearn backend. The index is deleted only when you call delete_brain_run().

Applications¶

How can similarity be used in practice? A common pattern is to mine your dataset for similar examples to certain images or object patches of interest, e.g., those that represent failure modes of a model that need to be studied in more detail or underrepresented classes that need more training examples.

Here are a few of the many possible applications:

Identifying failure patterns of a model
Finding examples of target scenarios in your data lake
Mining hard examples for your evaluation pipeline
Recommending samples from your data lake for classes that need additional training data
Pruning near-duplicate images from your training dataset

CIFAR-10 example¶

The following example demonstrates two common workflows that you can perform using a similarity index generated via compute_similarity() on the CIFAR-10 dataset:

Selecting a set of maximally unique images from the dataset
Identifying near-duplicate images in the dataset

Warning

This workflow is only supported by the default sklearn backend.

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("cifar10", split="test")
print(dataset)

To proceed, we first need some suitable image embeddings for the dataset. Although the compute_similarity() and compute_visualization() methods are equipped with a default general-purpose model to generate embeddings if none are provided, you’ll typically find higher-quality insights when a domain-specific model is used to generate embeddings.

In this case, we’ll use a classifier that has been fine-tuned on CIFAR-10 to compute some embeddings and then generate image similarity/visualization indexes for them:

import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.brain.internal.models as fbm

# Compute embeddings via a pre-trained CIFAR-10 classifier
model = fbm.load_model("simple-resnet-cifar10")
embeddings = dataset.compute_embeddings(model, batch_size=16)

# Generate similarity index
results = fob.compute_similarity(
    dataset, embeddings=embeddings, brain_key="img_sim"
)

# Generate a 2D visualization
viz_results = fob.compute_visualization(
    dataset, embeddings=embeddings, brain_key="img_viz"
)

Finding maximally unique images¶

With a similarity index generated, we can use the find_unique() method of the index to identify a set of images of any desired size that are maximally unique with respect to each other:

# Use the similarity index to identify 500 maximally unique images
results.find_unique(500)
print(results.unique_ids[:5])

We can also conveniently visualize the results of this operation via the visualize_unique() method of the results object, which generates a scatterplot with the unique images colored separately:

# Visualize the unique images in embeddings space
plot = results.visualize_unique(visualization=viz_results)
plot.show(height=800, yaxis_scaleanchor="x")

And of course we can load a view containing the unique images in the App to explore the results in detail:

# Visualize the unique images in the App
unique_view = dataset.select(results.unique_ids)
session = fo.launch_app(view=unique_view)

Finding near-duplicate images¶

We can also use our similarity index to detect near-duplicate images in the dataset.

For example, let’s use the find_duplicates() method to identify the least similar images in our dataset:

# Use the similarity index to identify the 1% of images that are least
# similar w.r.t. the other images
results.find_duplicates(fraction=0.01)

print(results.neighbors_map)

Note

You can also provide a specific embeddings distance threshold to find_duplicates(), in which case the non-duplicate set will be the (approximately) largest set such that all pairwise distances between non-duplicate images are greater than this threshold.

The neighbors_map property of the results object provides a data structure that summarizes the findings. The keys of the dictionary are the sample IDs of each nearest non-duplicate image, and the values are lists of (id, distance) tuples listing the sample IDs of the duplicate images for each in-sample image together with the embedding distance between the two images:

{
    '61143408db40df926c571a6b': [
        ('61143409db40df926c573075', 5.667297674385298),
        ('61143408db40df926c572ab6', 6.231051661334058)
    ],
    '6114340cdb40df926c577f2a': [
        ('61143408db40df926c572b54', 6.042934361555487)
    ],
    '61143408db40df926c572aa3': [
        ('6114340bdb40df926c5772e9', 5.88984758067434),
        ('61143408db40df926c572b64', 6.063986454046798),
        ('61143409db40df926c574571', 6.10303338363576),
        ('6114340adb40df926c5749a2', 6.161749290179865)
    ],
    ...
}

We can conveniently visualize this information in the App via the duplicates_view() method of the results object, which constructs a view with the duplicate images arranged directly after their corresponding nearest in-sample image, with additional sample fields recording the type and nearest in-sample ID/distance for each image:

duplicates_view = results.duplicates_view(
    type_field="dup_type",
    id_field="dup_id",
    dist_field="dup_dist",
)

session.view = duplicates_view

Image uniqueness¶

The FiftyOne Brain allows for the computation of the uniqueness of an image, in comparison with other images in a dataset; it does so without requiring any model from you. One good use of uniqueness is in the early stages of the machine learning workflow when you are deciding what subset of data with which to bootstrap your models. Unique samples are vital in creating training batches that help your model learn as efficiently and effectively as possible.

The uniqueness of a Dataset can be computed directly without need the predictions of a pre-trained model via the compute_uniqueness() method:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob

dataset = fo.load_dataset(...)

fob.compute_uniqueness(dataset)

Input: An unlabeled (or labeled) image dataset. There are recipes for building datasets from a wide variety of image formats, ranging from a simple directory of images to complicated dataset structures like COCO.

Note

Did you know? Instead of using FiftyOne’s default model to generate embeddings, you can provide your own embeddings or specify a model from the Model Zoo to use to generate embeddings via the optional embeddings and model argument to compute_uniqueness().

Output: A scalar-valued uniqueness field is populated on each sample that ranks the uniqueness of that sample (higher value means more unique). The uniqueness values for a dataset are normalized to [0, 1], with the most unique sample in the collection having a uniqueness value of 1.

You can customize the name of this field by passing the optional uniqueness_field argument to compute_uniqueness().

What to expect: Uniqueness uses a tuned algorithm that measures the distribution of each Sample in the Dataset. Using this distribution, it ranks each sample based on its relative similarity to other samples. Those that are close to other samples are not unique whereas those that are far from most other samples are more unique.

Note

Did you know? You can specify a region of interest within each image to use to compute uniqueness by providing the optional roi_field argument to compute_uniqueness(), which contains Detections or Polylines that define the ROI for each sample.

Note

Check out the uniqueness tutorial to see an example use case of the Brain’s uniqueness method to detect near-duplicate images in a dataset.

Label mistakes¶

Label mistakes can be calculated for both classification and detection datasets.

Correct annotations are crucial in developing high performing models. Using the FiftyOne Brain and the predictions of a pre-trained model, you can identify possible labels mistakes in Classification fields of your dataset via the compute_mistakenness() method:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob

dataset = fo.load_dataset(...)

fob.compute_mistakenness(
    dataset, "predictions", label_field="ground_truth"
)

Input: Label mistakes operate on samples for which there are both human annotations ("ground_truth" above) and model predictions ("predictions" above).

Output: A float mistakenness field is populated on each sample that ranks the chance that the human annotation is mistaken. You can customize the name of this field by passing the optional mistakenness_field argument to compute_mistakenness().

What to expect: Finding mistakes in human annotations is non-trivial (if it could be done perfectly then the approach would sufficiently replace your prediction model!) The FiftyOne Brain uses a proprietary scoring model that ranks samples for which your prediction model is highly confident but wrong (according to the human annotation label) as a high chance of being a mistake.

Note

Check out the label mistakes tutorial to see an example use case of the Brain’s mistakenness method on a classification dataset.

Correct annotations are crucial in developing high performing models. Using the FiftyOne Brain and the predictions of a pre-trained model, you can identify possible labels mistakes in Detections fields of your dataset via the compute_mistakenness() method:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob

dataset = fo.load_dataset(...)

fob.compute_mistakenness(
    dataset, "predictions", label_field="ground_truth"
)

Input: You can compute label mistakes on samples for which there are both human annotations ("ground_truth" above) and model predictions ("predictions" above).

Output: New fields on both the detections in label_field and the samples will be populated:

Detection-level fields:

mistakenness (float): Objects in label_field that matched with a prediction have their mistakenness field populated with a measure of the likelihood that the ground truth annotation is a mistake.
mistakenness_loc (float): Objects in label_field that matched with a prediction have their mistakenness_loc field populated with a measure of the mistakenness in the localization (bounding box) of the ground truth annotation.
possible_missing (bool): If there are predicted objects with no matches in label_field but which are deemed to be likely correct annotations, these objects will have their possible_missing attribute set to True. In addition, if you pass the optional copy_missing=True flag to compute_mistakenness(), then these objects will be copied into label_field.
possible_spurious (bool): Objects in label_field that were not matched with a prediction and deemed to be likely spurious annotations will have their possible_spurious field set to True.

Sample-level fields:

mistakenness (float): The maximum mistakenness of an object in the label_field of the sample.
possible_missing (int): The number of objects that were added to the label_field of the sample and marked as likely missing annotations.
possible_spurious (int): The number of objects in the label_field of the sample that were deemed to be likely spurious annotations.

You can customize the names of these fields by passing optional arguments to compute_mistakenness().

What to expect: Finding mistakes in human annotations is non-trivial (if it could be done perfectly then the approach would sufficiently replace your prediction model!) The FiftyOne Brain uses a proprietary scoring model that ranks detections for which your prediction model is highly confident but wrong (according to the human annotation label) as a high chance of being a mistake.

Note

Check out the detection mistakes tutorials to see an example use case of the Brain’s mistakenness method on a detection dataset.

Sample hardness¶

During training, it is useful to identify samples that are more difficult for a model to learn so that training can be more focused around these hard samples. These hard samples are also useful as seeds when considering what other new samples to add to a training dataset.

In order to compute hardness, all you need to do is add your model predictions and their logits to your FiftyOne Dataset and then run the compute_hardness() method:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob

dataset = fo.load_dataset(...)

fob.compute_hardness(dataset, "predictions")

Input: A Dataset or DatasetView on which predictions have been computed and are stored in the "predictions" argument. Ground truth annotations are not required for hardness.

Output: A scalar-valued hardness field is populated on each sample that ranks the hardness of the sample. You can customize the name of this field via the hardness_field argument of compute_hardness().

What to expect: Hardness is computed in the context of a prediction model. The FiftyOne Brain hardness measure defines hard samples as those for which the prediction model is unsure about what label to assign. This measure incorporates prediction confidence and logits in a tuned model that has demonstrated empirical value in many model training exercises.

Note

Check out the classification evaluation tutorial to see example uses of the Brain’s hardness method to uncover annotation mistakes in a dataset.

Managing brain runs¶

When you run a brain method with a brain_key argument, the run is recorded on the dataset and you can retrieve information about it later, rename it, delete it (along with any modifications to your dataset that were performed by it), and even retrieve the view that you computed on using the following methods on your dataset:

The compute_visualization() method accepts an optional brain_key parameter that specifies the brain key under which to store the results of the visualization.

The compute_similarity() method accepts an optional brain_key parameter that specifies the brain key under which to store the similarity index.

The brain key of uniqueness runs is the value of the uniqueness_field passed to compute_uniqueness().

The brain key of mistakenness runs is the value of the mistakenness_field passed to compute_mistakenness().

The brain key of hardness runs is the value of the hardness_field passed to compute_hardness().

The example below demonstrates the basic interface:

import fiftyone as fo
import fiftyone.brain as fob
import fiftyone.zoo as foz

dataset = foz.load_zoo_dataset("quickstart")

view = dataset.take(100)

# Run a brain method that returns results
results = fob.compute_visualization(view, brain_key="visualization")

# Run a brain method that populates a new sample field on the dataset
fob.compute_uniqueness(view)

# List the brain methods that have been run
print(dataset.list_brain_runs())
# ['visualization', 'uniqueness']

# Print information about a brain run
print(dataset.get_brain_info("visualization"))

# Load the results of a previous brain run
also_results = dataset.load_brain_results("visualization")

# Load the view on which a brain run was performed
same_view = dataset.load_brain_view("visualization")

# Rename a brain run
dataset.rename_brain_run("visualization", "still_visualization")

# Delete brain runs
# This will delete any stored results and fields that were populated
dataset.delete_brain_run("still_visualization")
dataset.delete_brain_run("uniqueness")

Brain config¶

FiftyOne provides a brain config that you can use to either temporarily or permanently configure the behavior of brain methods.

Viewing your config¶

You can print your current brain config at any time via the Python library and the CLI:

import fiftyone.brain as fob

# Print your current brain config
print(fob.brain_config)

{
    "default_similarity_backend": "sklearn",
    "similarity_backends": {
        "milvus": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.milvus.MilvusSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "pinecone": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.pinecone.PineconeSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "qdrant": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.qdrant.QdrantSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "sklearn": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.sklearn.SklearnSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "lancedb": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.lancedb.LanceDBSimilarityConfig"
        }
    }
}

# Print your current brain config
fiftyone brain config

{
    "default_similarity_backend": "sklearn",
    "similarity_backends": {
        "milvus": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.milvus.MilvusSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "pinecone": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.pinecone.PineconeSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "qdrant": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.qdrant.QdrantSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "sklearn": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.sklearn.SklearnSimilarityConfig"
        },
        "lancedb": {
            "config_cls": "fiftyone.brain.internal.core.lancedb.LanceDBSimilarityConfig"
        }
    }
}

Note

If you have customized your brain config via any of the methods described below, printing your config is a convenient way to ensure that the changes you made have taken effect as you expected.

Modifying your config¶

You can modify your brain config in a variety of ways. The following sections describe these options in detail.

Order of precedence¶

The following order of precedence is used to assign values to your brain config settings as runtime:

Config settings applied at runtime by directly editing fiftyone.brain.brain_config
FIFTYONE_BRAIN_XXX environment variables
Settings in your JSON config (~/.fiftyone/brain_config.json)
The default config values

Editing your JSON config¶

You can permanently customize your brain config by creating a ~/.fiftyone/brain_config.json file on your machine. The JSON file may contain any desired subset of config fields that you wish to customize.

For example, the following config JSON file customizes the URL of your Qdrant server without changing any other default config settings:

{
    "similarity_backends": {
        "qdrant": {
            "url": "http://localhost:8080"
        }
    }
}

When fiftyone.brain is imported, any options from your JSON config are merged into the default config, as per the order of precendence described above.

Note

You can customize the location from which your JSON config is read by setting the FIFTYONE_BRAIN_CONFIG_PATH environment variable.

Setting environment variables¶

Brain config settings may be customized on a per-session basis by setting the FIFTYONE_BRAIN_XXX environment variable(s) for the desired config settings.

The FIFTYONE_BRAIN_DEFAULT_SIMILARITY_BACKEND environment variable allows you to configure your default similarity backend, and FIFTYONE_BRAIN_SIMILARITY_BACKENDS can be set to a list,of,backends that you want to expose in your session, which may exclude native backends and/or declare additional custom backends whose parameters are defined via additional config modifications of any kind.

You can declare parameters for specific similarity backends by setting environment variables of the form FIFTYONE_BRAIN_SIMILARITY_<BACKEND>_<PARAMETER>. Any settings that you declare in this way will be passed as keyword arguments to methods like compute_similarity() whenever the corresponding backend is in use.

For example, you can configure the URL of your Qdrant server as follows:

export FIFTYONE_BRAIN_SIMILARITY_QDRANT_URL=http://localhost:8080

Modifying your config in code¶

You can dynamically modify your brain config at runtime by directly editing the fiftyone.brain.brain_config object.

Any changes to your brain config applied via this manner will immediately take effect in all subsequent calls to fiftyone.brain.brain_config during your current session.

import fiftyone.brain as fob

fob.brain_config.default_similarity_backend = "<backend>"